"O GOD THEE I PRAY INCREASE MY KNOWLEDGE DAY BY DAY"

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For Success

For Success
Know more than other Work more than other But, Expect less than other

Its a necessary and sufficient condition-----

Its a necessary and sufficient condition-----
"If you win, you need not have to explain.........But if you lose, you should not be there to explain!"

11 April 2011

Nural network AI (courtesy google)

What is a Neural Network?
An Artificial Neural Network (ANN) is an information processing paradigm that is inspired by the way biological nervous systems, such as the brain, process information. The key element of this paradigm is the novel structure of the information processing system. It is composed of a large number of highly interconnected processing elements (neurones) working in unison to solve specific problems. ANNs, like people, learn by example. An ANN is configured for a specific application, such as pattern recognition or data classification, through a learning process. Learning in biological systems involves adjustments to the synaptic connections that exist between the neurones. This is true of ANNs as well.
The term neural network was traditionally used to refer to a network or circuit of biological neurons.[1] The modern usage of the term often refers to artificial neural networks, which are composed of artificial neurons or nodes. Thus the term has two distinct usages:
1. Biological neural networks are made up of real biological neurons that are connected or functionally related in the peripheral nervous system or the central nervous system. In the field of neuroscience, they are often identified as groups of neurons that perform a specific physiological function in laboratory analysis.
2. Artificial neural networks are composed of interconnecting artificial neurons (programming constructs that mimic the properties of biological neurons). Artificial neural networks may either be used to gain an understanding of biological neural networks, or for solving artificial intelligence problems without necessarily creating a model of a real biological system. The real, biological nervous system is highly complex: artificial neural network algorithms attempt to abstract this complexity and focus on what may hypothetically matter most from an information processing point of view. Good performance (e.g. as measured by good predictive ability, low generalization error), or performance mimicking animal or human error patterns, can then be used as one source of evidence towards supporting the hypothesis that the abstraction really captured something important from the point of view of information processing in the brain. Another incentive for these abstractions is to reduce the amount of computation required to simulate artificial neural networks, so as to allow one to experiment with larger networks and train them on larger data sets.
Why use neural networks?
Neural networks, with their remarkable ability to derive meaning from complicated or imprecise data, can be used to extract patterns and detect trends that are too complex to be noticed by either humans or other computer techniques. A trained neural network can be thought of as an "expert" in the category of information it has been given to analyse. This expert can then be used to provide projections given new situations of interest and answer "what if" questions.
Other advantages include:
1. Adaptive learning: An ability to learn how to do tasks based on the data given for training or initial experience.
2. Self-Organisation: An ANN can create its own organisation or representation of the information it receives during learning time.
3. Real Time Operation: ANN computations may be carried out in parallel, and special hardware devices are being designed and manufactured which take advantage of this capability.
4. Fault Tolerance via Redundant Information Coding: Partial destruction of a network leads to the corresponding degradation of performance. However, some network capabilities may be retained even with major network damage.

The brain, neural networks and computers
Neural networks, as used in artificial intelligence, have traditionally been viewed as simplified models of neural processing in the brain, even though the relation between this model and brain biological architecture is debated, as little is known about how the brain actually works
A subject of current research in theoretical neuroscience is the question surrounding the degree of complexity and the properties that individual neural elements should have to reproduce something resembling animal intelligence.
Historically, computers evolved from the von Neumann architecture, which is based on sequential processing and execution of explicit instructions. On the other hand, the origins of neural networks are based on efforts to model information processing in biological systems, which may rely largely on parallel processing as well as implicit instructions based on recognition of patterns of 'sensory' input from external sources. In other words, at its very heart a neural network is a complex statistical processor (as opposed to being tasked to sequentially process and execute).
Neural coding is concerned with how sensory and other information is represented in the brain by neurons. The main goal of studying neural coding is to characterize the relationship between the stimulus and the individual or ensemble neuronal responses and the relationship among electrical activity of the neurons in the ensemble.It is thought that neurons can encode both digital and analog information.
Human and Artificial Neurones - investigating the similarities
2.1 How the Human Brain Learns?
Much is still unknown about how the brain trains itself to process information, so theories abound. In the human brain, a typical neuron collects signals from others through a host of fine structures called dendrites. The neuron sends out spikes of electrical activity through a long, thin stand known as an axon, which splits into thousands of branches. At the end of each branch, a structure called a synapse converts the activity from the axon into electrical effects that inhibit or excite activity from the axon into electrical effects that inhibit or excite activity in the connected neurones. When a neuron receives excitatory input that is sufficiently large compared with its inhibitory input, it sends a spike of electrical activity down its axon. Learning occurs by changing the effectiveness of the synapses so that the influence of one neuron on another changes.


Components of a neuron The synapse


2.2 From Human Neurones to Artificial Neurones
We conduct these neural networks by first trying to deduce the essential features of neurones and their interconnections. We then typically program a computer to simulate these features. However because our knowledge of neurones is incomplete and our computing power is limited, our models are necessarily gross idealisations of real networks of neurones.
The neuron mode
Neural networks and artificial intelligence
A neural network (NN), in the case of artificial neurons called artificial neural network (ANN) or simulated neural network (SNN), is an interconnected group of natural or artificial neurons that uses a mathematical or computational model for information processing based on a connectionistic approach to computation. In most cases an ANN is an adaptive system that changes its structure based on external or internal information that flows through the network.
In more practical terms neural networks are non-linear statistical data modeling or decision making tools. They can be used to model complex relationships between inputs and outputs or to find patterns in data.
However, the paradigm of neural networks - i.e., implicit, not explicit , learning is stressed - seems more to correspond to some kind of natural intelligence than to the traditional symbol-based Artificial Intelligence, which would stress, instead, rule-based learning
Applications of natural and of artificial neural networks
The utility of artificial neural network models lies in the fact that they can be used to infer a function from observations and also to use it. Unsupervised neural networks can also be used to learn representations of the input that capture the salient characteristics of the input distribution, e.g., see the Boltzmann machine (1983), and more recently, deep learning algorithms, which can implicitly learn the distribution function of the observed data. Learning in neural networks is particularly useful in applications where the complexity of the data or task makes the design of such functions by hand impractical.
The tasks to which artificial neural networks are applied tend to fall within the following broad categories:
• Function approximation, or regression analysis, including time series prediction and modeling.
• Classification, including pattern and sequence recognition, novelty detection and sequential decision making.
• Data processing, including filtering, clustering, blind signal separation and compression.
Application areas of ANNs include system identification and control (vehicle control, process control), game-playing and decision making (backgammon, chess, racing), pattern recognition (radar systems, face identification, object recognition, etc.), sequence recognition (gesture, speech, handwritten text recognition), medical diagnosis, financial applications, data mining (or knowledge discovery in databases, "KDD"), visualization and e-mail spam filtering
Applications
There are abundant materials, tutorials, references and disparate list of demos on the net. This work attempts to compile a list of applications and demos - those that comes with video clips.
The applications featured here are:
• CoEvolution of Neural Networks for Control of Pursuit & Evasion
• Learning the Distribution of Object Trajectories for Event Recognition
• Radiosity for Virtual Reality Systems
• Autonomous Walker & Swimming Eel
• Robocup: Robot World Cup
• Using HMM's for Audio-to-Visual Conversion
• Artificial Life: Galapagos
• Speechreading (Lipreading)
• Detection and Tracking of Moving Targets
• Real-time Target Identification for Security Applications
• Facial Animation
• Behavioral Animation and Evolution of Behavior
• A Three Layer Feedforward Neural Network
• Artificial Life for Graphics, Animation, Multimedia, and Virtual Reality: Siggraph '95 Showcase
• Creatures: The World Most Advanced Artificial Life!
• Framsticks Artificial Life n
Not all types of artificial intelligence are able to learn new ways of performing tasks. Expert systems are a variety of AI that is very different from those that use machine learning techniques. Instead of learning through training or even unsupervised learning, an expert system applies logical arguments to information provided as part of a knowledge base. Examples of expert systems include loan application evaluation systems and technical support systems.
Expert System Definitionn
expert system is software that uses a knowledge base of human expertise for problem solving, or clarify uncertainties where normally one or more human experts would need to be consulted. Expert systems are most common in a specific problem domain, and are a traditional application and/or subfield of artificial intelligence (AI). A wide variety of methods can be used to simulate the performance of the expert; however, common to most or all are: 1) the creation of a knowledge base which uses some knowledge representation structure to capture the knowledge of the Subject Matter Expert (SME); 2) a process of gathering that knowledge from the SME and codifying it according to the structure, which is called knowledge engineering; and 3) once the system is developed, it is placed in the same real world problem solving situation as the human SME, typically as an aid to human workers or as a supplement to some information system. Expert systems may or may not have learning components.
Expert systems are a type of AI that uses shells. Shells are small programs that maintain information for a specific function within a larger program framework. Shells also interact with users to gather data, which is applied to the knowledge base using the logical set of rules set up by the system. By combining input with existing data and the logical rules, the expert system will arrive at a conclusion.
Examples of applications
Expert systems are designed to facilitate tasks in the fields of accounting, medicine, process control, financial service, production, human resources, among others. Typically, the problem area is complex enough that a more simple traditional algorithm cannot provide a proper solution. The foundation of a successful expert system depends on a series of technical procedures and development that may be designed by technicians and related experts. As such, expert systems do not typically provide a definitive answer, but provide probabilistic recommendations.
An example of the application of expert systems in the financial field is expert systems for mortgages. Loan departments are interested in expert systems for mortgages because of the growing cost of labour, which makes the handling and acceptance of relatively small loans less profitable. They also see a possibility for standardised, efficient handling of mortgage loan by applying expert systems, appreciating that for the acceptance of mortgages there are hard and fast rules which do not always exist with other types of loans. Another common application in the financial area for expert systems are in trading recommendations in various marketplaces. These markets involve numerous variables and human emotions which may be impossible to deterministically characterize, thus expert systems based on the rules of thumb from experts and simulation data are used. Expert system of this type can range from ones providing regional retail recommendations, like Wishabi, to ones used to assist monetary decisions by financial institutions and governments.
Another 1970s and 1980s application of expert systems, which we today would simply call AI, was in computer games. For example, the computer baseball games Earl Weaver Baseball and Tony La Russa Baseball each had highly detailed simulations of the game strategies of those two baseball managers. When a human played the game against the computer, the computer queried the Earl Weaver or Tony La Russa Expert System for a decision on what strategy to follow. Even those choices where some randomness was part of the natural system (such as when to throw a surprise pitch-out to try to trick a runner trying to steal a base) were decided based on probabilities supplied by Weaver or La Russa. Today we would simply say that "the game's AI provided the opposing manager's strategy."

Financial Expert Systems: Loans
In the finance realm, these systems are used to evaluate criteria based on pre-set logical guidelines and information. When creating the expert system, the programmer must rely on true experts to provide the rules for evaluation. For example, a consumer loan application made by an unemployed person with a poor credit score and no income would quickly be rejected. This allows banks and other lenders to quickly pre-screen credit offers without devoting man-hours to the evaluation process.
Technical Support Systems
A technical support system powered by shell programming can also be extremely effective for screening out simple solutions. Once the system is populated with common problems and solutions, users can benefit from the individual applications to each situation, while the tech department benefits from a reduced number of routine calls.
Expert System Applications in Real Life
Examples of expert system applications, such as loan evaluators and technical support systems, show how shell programming is very useful to businesses in real life. Although there are many benefits, it's worthwhile to keep in mind that this type of system is limited both by the quality of the data in the knowledge base, and the thoroughness of the rules by which the system operates. A low quality of information or poorly expressed logical arguments can result in the failure of the system to reach appropriate conclusions. In other words, expert systems are the embodiment of the phrase, "Garbage in, garbage out."
Artificial Intelligence Applications
Looking for more information about artificial intelligence applications in real life? Check out ways to use smart home appliances for a better quality of life: Combining artificial intelligence with home automation is great for anyone with mobility or dexterity issues, including the elderly and disabled. Also, disabled students are often at a disadvantage in the classroom. Voice recognition software improves communication, enables note-taking, and increases participation in classroom activities. Speaking of kids, robots are acting as therapy assistants to help parents and therapists in teaching special needs children with autism. Imagine - fuzzy logic, helping autistic kids!


(courtesy & source google)

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